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Hello symposiasts! I’m Dr Angela Puca, a Religious Studies PhD, and your online resource for the academic study of Magick, esotericism, Paganism, Shamanism, and all things occult.
Today, we talk about Neo Sufism and the evolution of Sufism from a global perspective.
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Introduction: Sufism
Sufism, a mystical branch of Islam, actively pursues divine love and transcendent knowledge through direct personal experiences, offering a stark contrast to the orthodox Islamic emphasis on emulating the Prophet Muhammad. Originating in the ninth century, Sufism has profoundly influenced various cultural manifestations, such as the evocative Persian qawwali music, the hypnotic dances of Turkish whirling Dervishes, and the deeply symbolic Sufi poetry rendered in Persian, which has significantly impacted the visual arts.

Introduced to Western audiences in the early 20th century primarily through Hazrat Inayat Khan and subsequently expanded by Meher Baba, Sufism adapted to the liberal cultural milieu of the West, progressively distancing itself from conventional Islamic frameworks.
Central to Sufism is the doctrine of ‘fana’ (self-annihilation in the divine) and ‘baqa’ (eternal existence in God), which have nurtured the development of diverse Sufi orders. These range from traditional orders, which adhere closely to Islamic practices, to Neo-Sufism, which emphasises the essence of Sufi mysticism, often independently of its Islamic origins. Our exploration into Sufism’s integration and evolution in different cultural contexts underscores its role as a dynamic and adaptive spiritual tradition.

In this episode, I will present research arguing that global Sufism, having migrated far from its Islamic roots, could be considered a new religion. This transformation has been facilitated by Western fascination with Eastern mysticism and the commercialisation of cultural products such as music influenced by Sufi principles. We will also explore how Sufism as a cultural filter has contributed to the arts, exemplified by Iranian artists promoting Sufi values through non-Islamic classical Persian poetry and music. This adaptability of Sufism highlights its role in accommodating personal expression within the contemporary Western cultural landscape.

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Sufi History
(Milani, 2012)
Sufi history can be divided into three key phases:
• The era of asceticism (750–900 CE)
• The period of classical mysticism (950–1100 CE)
• The time of the fraternities (1100–1300 CE)
Sufism emerged from a century of Muslim asceticism in Basra, Iraq. This period was marked by the early Muslim ascetics’ response to the increasing worldliness of the Umayyad period. These ascetics, noted for their piety and devotion, laid the groundwork for Sufism.
These early ascetics were so devoted that they probably thought having two sandals instead of one was a luxury! Imagine their Black Friday sales: ‘Buy nothing, get enlightenment free!’

Sufism From Asceticism to Mysticism
Rabia al-Adawiyah, a female mystic from Basra, who emphasised a pure, disinterested love for God, significantly influenced the transformation from asceticism to mysticism.
Rabia introduced the concept of divine love to Sufism, which was a real game changer. Before her, the most exciting thing in Sufism might have been double-sided prayer mats!
This shift introduced the concept of divine love into Sufism, further developed by figures like Junayd Baghdadi and Dhu’l Nun Mesri, who introduced terms like ma’rifah (inward knowledge). Bayazid Bistami further advanced the concept with the doctrine of fana (annihilation of self), linking it to earlier theosophical ideas from Greco-Roman and Islamic philosophy.

Classical Mysticism
The second phase saw figures like al-Hallaj, who pushed the boundaries of personal mystical experience, often at great personal risk.
Al-Hallaj was so mystical; he probably didn’t just think outside the box; he was floating above it!
His ideas of divine love and union with God challenged orthodox views and set the stage for later mystics and poets. Al-Ghazali, in the eleventh century, moderated Sufism’s mystical and philosophical aspects, which helped spread Sufism widely and led to the formation of various Sufi orders.

By the thirteenth century, Sufism wasn’t just a spiritual practice. It was practically a multinational corporation—minus the tax evasion.
Sufism had a profound influence across the Islamic world, from Turkey to India. It integrated local mystical traditions and significantly shaped Islamic society.

Sufi Fraternities
Sufi fraternities played a crucial role in spreading Islam and Persian culture across a vast region, establishing a network of khaniqahs and influencing ordinary people’s religious and cultural life.

The Seljuk Empire in the eleventh century played a crucial role in the spread of Islam through the missionary activities of wandering Sufis, known as Dervishes, and their establishment of khaniqahs or Sufi lodging houses. These facilities were vital for extending Islamic influence, especially in remote rural areas and new territories like Tabarestan and Anatolia.

Sama’ – Trance-inducing music and Dance

The practice of sama‘, spiritual concerts, which emerged in the ninth century among Baghdad Sufis, became a significant ritual involving music and dance that induced trance-like states. Despite initial opposition from orthodox Islam, sama’ gained acceptance and became standardised in Sufi rituals by the thirteenth century.

Sufis were known for their disdain towards the orthodoxy of the ulema, as illustrated by the Andalusian Sufi Ibn al-Arabi and later by the Persian poet Hafiz, who emphasised spiritual purification through non-traditional means, like visiting taverns. However, the rise of the Safavid Empire in the sixteenth century saw a decline in Sufi influence, as this new regime supported a strict form of Shi’a Islam and suppressed Sufi practices.

Sufism Resists Suppression
Sufism’s resilience is partly due to its ability to integrate aspects of pre-Islamic cultures, which it encountered through missionary work. This included adopting shamanistic elements from Central Asia and other local religious practices, allowing Sufism to maintain cultural diversity within the Islamic world. Persian civilisation, in particular, revived its language and cultural practices after centuries of Islamic dominance, with Sufi poetry featuring metaphors of love and wine to express spiritual concepts.

Prominent Persian poets like Rudaki and later figures such as Rumi and Hafiz used the lyrical language of Sufism to discuss transcendent love and spirituality, often challenging traditional religious and cultural norms. The Qalandariyya movement, which emerged in the thirteenth century, epitomised this spirit by embracing antinomian values.

Antinomian Values in the Arts
In the arts, Persian miniature painting and the music of the Whirling Dervishes became significant cultural expressions of Sufism. These art forms, especially miniature painting, often depicted mystical and poetic themes, such as the Prophet Muhammad’s ascension and scenes from Sufi saints’ lives. Qawwali music, which developed in twelfth-century Persia and later became popular in South Asia, is another profound Sufi contribution, with performers like Nusrat Fateh Ali Khan bringing it to a global audience.

Neo-Sufism
Sufism’s universal appeal and adaptability are well acknowledged, with its institutions demonstrating a capacity to transcend socio-economic barriers through “glocalisation.” This adaptability has allowed Sufism to evolve beyond traditional Islamic confines, adopting forms responsive to contemporary social settings, leading to what some refer to as New Age or neo-Sufism. This adaptability has allowed Sufism to evolve beyond traditional Islamic confines, adopting forms responsive to contemporary social settings, leading to what some refer to as New Age or neo-Sufism. While maintaining core Sufi teachings, this form of Sufism often diverges significantly from orthodox Islamic practices, highlighting a tradition of innovation within Sufism.

Neosufism in a Western Context
The phenomenon of neo-Sufism is especially evident in Western contexts where it has been shaped by and integrated into the landscape of Western esotericism. Neo-Sufism in the West is categorised into Islamic Sufism, non-Islamic neo-Sufism, and partly Islamic neo-Sufism. These Western manifestations of Sufism often present it as a universal truth that transcends traditional religious boundaries, suggesting that Sufism embodies the essence of all religions.

So, in the West, Sufism has been mixed with everything from yoga to veganism—making it the spiritual equivalent of a hipster café.

Hazrat Inayat Khan is a pivotal figure in the transmission of Sufism to the West. He founded the Western Sufi Order and promoted a version of Sufism that emphasised the “religion of the heart” independent of any specific religious doctrine. His teachings were inclusive, drawing on elements from various world religions and focusing on spiritual unity.

Western Sufi Traditions
Another significant movement, “Sufism Reoriented,” emerged from Inayat Khan’s teachings under the guidance of Meher Baba, who integrated concepts from Vedanta and Christianity into his Sufi teachings. This school of thought viewed Sufism as predating Islam, emphasising a spiritual journey beyond the physical.

Another influential figure, Idries Shah, portrayed Sufism as a living tradition adaptable to the context of the times. His approach, which leaned heavily on psychological insights, stripped traditional Sufi practices of their religious elements to make them more accessible to a Western audience. Shah’s representation of Sufism focused on its philosophical and wisdom aspects, utilising storytelling to convey Sufi teachings.

Overall, neo-Sufism in the West has adapted to meet Westerners’ spiritual needs, often distancing itself from its Islamic roots to emphasise a more universal spiritual experience. This evolution reflects both Sufism’s historical adaptability and its contemporary relevance in a global context.

Hirsch’s Framework
Hirsch’s framework elucidates that Sufism can be conceptualised as a producer of spiritual commodities, which are processed and refined by organisational bodies before reaching the ultimate consumers. This model accentuates Sufism’s adaptability across diverse societal contexts, reflecting and responding to local cultural dynamics. In its historical roles, Sufism has acted as a counterbalance to materialism in the early Islamic periods, promoted the cultivation of mystical love, aided the expansion of Islam, and has been embraced as a perennial non-Islamic philosophy.

In Western societies, Sufism has been particularly revered as a form of theosophy or wisdom tradition. It appeals to the romanticised notions of the Orient and dovetails with the Western esoteric discourse on universal truths. This interpretation of Sufism contrasts sharply with its traditional Islamic theological roots, demonstrating a significant transformation in its understanding and practice.

Sufism and Western Esotericism
Furthermore, within the milieu of Western esotericism, Sufism has adopted and integrated a range of philosophical and spiritual practices that resonate with broader esoteric traditions. This includes an emphasis on direct personal experience of the divine. This idea aligns well with the esoteric principle of gaining knowledge through internal, mystical insights rather than external authority or dogma. Meditation, chanting, and the Sufi path of inward journey toward self-discovery and divine union are paralleled in Western mystical traditions, such as those found in Gnosticism and Kabbalah, which similarly value the personal quest for spiritual enlightenment.

Sufi Syncretism in New Age Spirituality
Additionally, adopting Sufi practices in the West often involves a syncretic approach, where elements of Sufism are blended with other spiritual and philosophical traditions. This includes incorporating universalistic and inclusivist approaches to religion, hallmark features of New Age spirituality. Such adaptations make Sufism particularly appealing to a Western audience increasingly looking beyond traditional religious structures towards a more eclectic and personalised spiritual experience.

Thus, in Western esotericism, Sufism is not just a transplant of an Eastern spiritual tradition but a reinterpreted and reinvented form of spirituality that actively engages with and contributes to the contemporary Western spiritual landscape. This has allowed Sufism to thrive as a vibrant and dynamic element of global spirituality, continually evolving in its new settings.

The Question of Theological Authenticity
The adaptation of Sufism to modern, consumerist societies raises questions about the authenticity and integrity of its expressions. For example, in Turkey, Sufi practices have been reduced to tourist performances, similar to the street performances of sacred Aboriginal music in Australia. Such adaptations prompt discussions on whether these practices retain their theological meanings or serve as exotic aesthetic attractions.

Despite these transformations, the spiritual essence of Sufism and its cultural products is argued to remain potent, even if mystified or misunderstood by those less familiar with its deeper meanings. Like sacred Aboriginal music or art, the performative spirituality of Sufi music and dance carries a dynamic energy that impacts individuals profoundly, allowing them to engage with Sufism and spirituality at their own pace and deepen their understanding over time.

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REFERENCE

Milani, M. 2012. The Cultural Products of Global Sufism In: C. Cusack and A. Norman, eds. Handbook of New Religions and Cultural Production. Brill, pp.659–680.